Content

EXTENDED CONTENTS LIST

1.1 Geographical and Topographical Setting
- Coastal elevation and harbor layout
- Plateaus, mounds, and natural defense systems
1.2 Historical Significance
- Byblos as the oldest continuously inhabited city
- Gateway between Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Mediterranean
1.3 Natural Resources and Trade Goods
- Cedar wood, olive oil, wine — exports and sacred commodities
- Imported metals, luxury ceramics, and incense resins
1.4 Evolution of Urban Identity
- From village to city-state to provincial hub

2.1 Key Excavators and Contributions
- Pierre Montet’s discovery of Royal Necropolis
- Maurice Dunand’s methodological legacy: full stratigraphic excavation to virgin soil
2.2 Excavation Campaigns and Timeline
- Campaign chronology: 1920–1963
- Four major excavation phases and historical layers uncovered
2.3 Techniques and Philosophies
- Levee-layer excavation (20 cm depth logic)
- 50m grid system, color-layer tracking, 3D stratigraphy modeling
- Documentation of each stone: drawing, photo, written log
2.4 Challenges of Preservation
- Speed vs integrity
- Example: three years to safely remove a single obelisk

3.1 Chronological Urban Phases
- Early Bronze IB–III (organic layout to planned grid)
- Chalcolithic settlements and modular household design
- Persian and Iron Age fortification and remodeling
3.2 Zoning and City Blocks
- Acropolis (sacred/political zone), lower residential quarters, harbor/industrial sector
- Street system: radial grid with intersections (Streets A–D)
3.3 Building Materials and Construction
- Foundations: rubble, stone
- Walls: mudbrick with wooden frames
- Roofing: matting on timber, sometimes clay-coated
3.4 Infrastructure and Public Utilities
- Stone-paved roads, staircases, drainage
- Watchtowers, monumental gates, harbor docks
- Urban concentric layouts and semi-orthogonal grids

4.1 Temple of Baalat Gebal
- Phoenician and Egyptian sections, massive altar, paved esplanade
- Religious symbolism of east-west alignment
- Astronomical alignments (sun/moon, Venus)
- Entrances for royalty and priests (east), public (north)
4.2 Temple in L
- Precinct with three chapels, forecourt, priest annexes
- Sacred libation basins, betyle (divine stone), ceremonial basins
- Later foundation for the Temple of the Obelisks
4.3 Temple of the Obelisks
- Dedicated to Reshef, Egyptian influence under Thutmose III
- 26 obelisks, gold-plated offerings, animal statues
- Reuse of earlier Egyptian components
- Ritual layout: antecella, cella, chapel, stone benches

5.1 Royal Necropolis
- Nine tombs, monolithic sarcophagi, elite grave goods
- Kings from Abi-Shemu I to Abi-Shemu II (1840–1700 BCE)
- Use of colored stone lids, Egyptian imports, 700-year continuity
5.2 Necropolis K
- Subterranean rooms, Hyksos scarabs, Mycenaean and Cypriot vessels
- Burial access via vertical well shafts
5.3 Eneolithic Necropolis
- 255 burials, 3,652 objects: obsidian, copper, ivory, ceramics
- Jar burials and symbolic grave goods distribution

6.1 Chalcolithic and Bronze Age Dwellings
- T-shaped homes with court and storage
- Compounded family structures in stone and mudbrick
6.2 Spatial Organization
- Street-facing homes, elite housing on acropolis
- Urban clustering and neighborhood identities
6.3 Everyday Artifacts and Interiors
- Cooking installations, quern stones, storage vessels

7.1 Harbor Evolution
- From natural inlet to ashlar-reinforced construction
- Tide-based rafts, sockets for mast-and-winch systems
7.2 Naval Equipment
- Ship nails with rope wear, dockyard installations
- Shipbuilding tools and theories from archaeological remains
7.3 Ancient Mentions
- Wenamun account of the port’s 11th century BCE activity

8.1 The Hybrid Economic Model
- Palatial (decentralized, household decision-making)
- Feudal-patrimonial (estate rule, kingly delegation)
- Capitalist (entrepreneurial land rights, tax exemptions)
8.2 Production and Ownership
- Royal farms, temple workshops, private family businesses
- Output diversity: grain, livestock, tools, jewelry, textiles
8.3 Merchant Classes and Trade Laws
- Maritime vs land-based merchants
- Franchises, monopolies, and administrative mobility
8.4 Land Transactions and Legal Transfers
- Role of deeds, seals, temple records
- Involvement of women in property ownership

9.1 Loan Systems
- Commodity (grain, oil) and monetary (silver) loans
- Secured by land deeds, sureties, or grain
9.2 Market Instruments
- Credit notes, deed-tablets, written contracts
- Notaries and temple arbitration courts
9.3 Currency and Metals
- Units: shekel, deben
- Exchange ratios: gold to silver, silver to copper
- Tradeable forms: oxhide ingots, coils, bars

10.1 Major Crafts
- Metalwork: tools, bowls, weapons
- Glass and ivory carving, textile weaving
- Jewelry: filigree, casting, inlay with symbolic motifs
10.2 Cultural Significance
- Jewelry as status symbol and trade item
- Sacred art: animal forms, divine symbols, geometric themes
10.3 Trade Integration
- Local manufacture for export: luxury and religious goods

11.1 Crops and Processing
- Barley, wheat, legumes, fruit, olives
- Techniques: irrigation, quern grinding, oven baking
11.2 Food in Daily and Ritual Life
- Bread, beer, honey offerings, cheese
- Oil and wine in trade and libations

12.1 Trade Networks
- Byblos–Egypt: copper, perfume, wine
- Levant–Crete: incense, perfume recipes
- Cyprus and Anatolia exchanges
12.2 Transportation Infrastructure
- Amphorae and resin-sealed containers
- Caravans, ships, naval convoys
12.3 Hazards and Security
- Bandits, storms, piracy
- Merchant alliances and royal escorts

13.1 Political Power Structures
- King as judge, priest, military commander
- Council of Elders and popular assemblies
13.2 Social Classes
- Nobility: priests, officials, merchants
- Middle class: farmers, craftsmen
- Women’s roles: property, religion, legal testimony
13.3 Governance and Civic Life
- Oligarchic and aristocratic republic elements
- Guild systems and civic contributions

14.1 Pottery Styles
- Mycenaean influence: amphorae, dishes, jugs
- Patterns: zigzags, chequers, concentric circles
14.2 Artistic Influences
- Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek cross-pollination
- Seals, inscriptions, painted ceramics
14.3 Sacred and Symbolic Art
- Betyles, libation bowls, religious statuettes

15.1 Syncretic Religious Practices
- Merging of Baalat Gebal with Astarte, Hathor, Isis
- Seasonal festivals, dance, incense rituals
15.2 Knowledge and Language Transmission
- Proto-Canaanite inscriptions
- Egyptian hieroglyphs in temple and tomb contexts
15.3 Shared Technological and Artistic Ideas
- Perfume recipes from Crete
- Architectural influence from Anatolia and Egypt